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The candle is the oldest means to
supplying light. Although a number of changes have been made to
methods of candle manufacture, there is no basic difference between a
candle made in the past and one made today.
References to lighting candles
date back to ancient times as early as 3000 BC in Crete and Egypt.
Candles are mentioned in Biblical writings as early as the tenth
century BC. A fragment of candle from the first century AD has been
found in Avignon, France.
Candles were used in great
halls, monasteries and churches of medieval times. In addition,
candles were used to light cottages and shops. King Alfred of England
stuck torches in walls to supply lighting. The simplest (and
smelliest) candles known as rush light were made by dipping rushes in
leftover kitchen fat.
For many centuries, candles
were considered expensive items in Europe. Town-made candles from the
wax-chandler were available for those who could afford them. These
candles were made of wax or animal fat and were placed in silver,
wooden or pewter candlesticks.
From the sixteenth century
onwards, living standards improved as evidenced by the increasing
availability of candlesticks and candleholders and their appearance in
households. At this time, candles were usually sold by the pound and
sold in bundles of eight, ten, or twelve candles. Everyday candles
were made of animal fat (tallow) , usually from sheep (mutton) or
cows. These candles were usually a dark yellowish color and probably
gave off a nasty smell.
In England, both the wax
chandlers and the tallow chandlers formed their own guilds. Wax
chandlers were considered more upper class than tallow chandlers.
Their business was also more profitable because people were prepared
to pay more for a wax candle. The English Tallow Chandlers were
incorporated in 1462 and they regulated trade in candles made from
animal fats. |
The
quality of candle light depended upon the type of material used.
Beeswax, for example, gave off a much brighter light than tallow. In
addition to tallow and beeswax, another material known as spermaceti
became popular for candle-making. Spermaceti was derived from the oil
present in the head cavities of sperm whales. These candles burned
with a very bright light- so bright that a spermaceti candle flame was
used as a standard light measure for photometry (the science of light
measurement). Spermaceti candles were slightly cheaper than beeswax
candles but are no longer made because of environmental concerns.
The nineteenth century brought
the development of patented candle-making machines, making candles
available for the poorest homes. In an attempt to protect the
industry, England passed a law forbidding the making of candles at
home without purchase of a special license. At this time, a chemist
named Michel Eugene Chevreul made an important discovery. He realized
that tallow was not one substance but a composition of two
fatty acids, stearic acid and oleic acid, combined with glycerine
to form a neutral non-flammable material.
By removing the glycerine from
the tallow mixture, Chevreul invented a new substance called "stearine."
Stearine was harder than tallow and burned brighter and longer. It is
this substance known today as stearin or stearic acid that led to the
improvement of candle quality. Stearin also made improvements in the
manufacture of wicks possible. It put an end to the constant round of
snuffing and trimming wicks once they were lit. Instead of being made
of simply twisted strands of cotton, wicks were now plaited tightly;
the burned portion curled over and was completely consumed, rather
than falling messily into the melting wax.
More improvements such as the
addition of lime, palmatine, and paraffin developed in commercial
candle manufacture. Paraffin wax was extracted from crude oil . It
equaled beeswax and spermaceti candles for brightness and hardness and
were cheaper. Paraffin wax is still widely used today in commercial
candle-making. |
